The Social Impact of Climate Change on the Livestock Production

Introduction

Climate change's impacts on current livestock systems across the world are an urgent problem, yet the topic is only briefly addressed in global assessments such as those released by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. The danger of climate-related impacts along the livestock food supply chain will be further discussed, especially social impacts. Although quantifying the net effects of climate change on the livestock sector is beyond our current understanding, there is strong evidence that impacts will occur throughout the supply chain, from farm production to processing operations, storage, transport, retailing, and human consumption. Climate-related risks are very context-specific but are likely higher in existing hot climates with limited socioeconomic and institutional resources for adaptation. There is significant uncertainty about climate futures, as well as the exposure and responses of interconnected human and ecological systems to climatic changes across time. As a result, adaptation decisions must account for various alternative scenarios, including those with low probability but significant effects, and context-specific conditions, considering the intricate socio-economic and environmental dynamics.

Hence, it is crucial to understand the complex relationships between climate change and livestock production to effectively address the numerous challenges encountered by different stakeholders throughout the livestock supply chain. The changes in consumption patterns caused by the decline in the nutritional quality of livestock products have far-reaching effects on societies. These effects extend beyond just dietary habits and also impact animal health and welfare. The challenges may be further intensified by the rising prices and unpredictable production caused by changes in pest and disease patterns. In addition, the impact of heat-related stresses on workers can lead to reduced availability and productivity, affecting the workforce necessary for sustaining livestock enterprises.

In this perspective, climate change emerges as a relevant challenge to the stability of global food security. The broad consequences, including changes in disease patterns, availability of resources, and suitability of grazing areas, have a profound impact on communities that depend on livestock production. These changes pose a significant threat to the livelihood of livestock and have a direct impact on the availability and quality of resources for rural communities.

The social impact of climate change on livestock production refers to the effects and consequences that climate-related change and disturbances have on the human aspects of the livestock industry. It encompasses a broad range of interconnected social factors, including the well-being of communities, livelihoods, labour conditions, and economic stability within the livestock sector. 

The importance of livestock production in global agriculture

According to data from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), livestock plays a significant role in global agriculture, contributing nearly 40% to total agricultural output in developed countries and approximately 20% in developing nations. This sector supports the livelihoods of at least 1.3 billion people worldwide and provides approximately 34% of the world's food protein (Besbes et al., 2019).

As we look towards the challenge of feeding the global population in 2050 with healthy, balanced diets while respecting environmental sustainability, the complexities of this task become apparent. Despite consumption stagnating or even decreasing in some regions, the overall global demand for major livestock commodities is expected to rise significantly by 2050. Projections indicate a 15% increase in the demand for meat over the next decade and a substantial 25% increase in the consumption of milk and dairy products by 2027 (Peyraud and MacLeod, 2020.). However, the consumption of animal products has become a contentious and ideological issue, particularly in urbanized Western societies. On one side of the debate, there has been a growing call for reduced animal product consumption over the last few decades, driven by concerns related to human health, land use, food security, and the climate emergency. Critics argue that the environmental impact of livestock farming, along with health considerations, necessitates a shift towards plant-based diets. Conversely, recent evidence challenges these associations, highlighting the potential drawbacks of eliminating or drastically reducing animal products from human diets. Some argue that the absence of these products can be linked to issues of undernutrition and stunting, particularly in vulnerable populations. This underscores the complexity of the discourse surrounding the consumption of animal products, with considerations extending beyond environmental impact to encompass human health and nutritional well-being. Navigating this intricate landscape requires a holistic approach that balances the nutritional needs of a growing global population with the imperative to mitigate the environmental impacts of livestock production. As we work towards sustainable food systems, finding solutions that address both dietary needs and environmental concerns is essential for ensuring the well-being of both individuals and the planet in the coming decades.

The rising demand for food in the world

The predicted growth in food production and its implications for land use change, biodiversity, and climate change are strongly reliant on global food demand and consumption predictions. According to the United Nations and FAO, the world population is expected to increase from 7.2 to 9.6 billion people by 2050 (UN, 2013), as is the need for and production of food. Agricultural items, which account for around 70% of global consumption (FAO, 2009), and livestock products, which account for 17% of global kilocalorie consumption and 33% of global protein consumption, are the food sources most likely to expand (Rosegrant et al., 2009).

Historically, Europe and America have been notable producers and consumers of a diverse range of meats and meat products. In contrast, Asian countries have traditionally relied more on grains and vegetables as the primary components of their diets, with a relatively lower consumption of meat or meat products. However, due to the rapid economic growth in Asian nations and the pervasive influence of Western culture, it is anticipated that the proportion of meat and meat products in the dietary patterns of these countries will increase (Nam et al., 2010). This change is part of a broader phenomenon termed the "livestock revolution," signifying a substantial increase in livestock production to meet the escalating demand for meat consumption in developing regions (Wright et al., 2012).

The global consumption of meat has undergone a significant surge, more than doubling since 1990, (Alexandratos and Bruinsma, 2012) reaching 324 million metric tons in 2020. This increase is characterized by specific per capita figures, with beef at 6.4 kg, pork at 10.7 kg, poultry at 14.9 kg, and sheep at 1.8 kg (OECD, 2021).  This growth is expected to be driven by a resurgence in Chinese meat production, and substantial expansions in Brazil, Vietnam, the United States of America, and the European Union, although potentially counteracted by contractions in Australia and Argentina. Notably, Australia is projected to experience a decline in meat output due to heightened demand for herd rebuilding, while Argentina is expected to witness a decrease in cattle supply (FAO, 2020). If China and Brazil, the world's two largest meat protein consumers, reduce their meat consumption in the future this is likely to be compensated for by increases in consumption in other parts of the world, such as the Middle East and North Africa (Msangi and Rosegrant, 2011).

The intrinsic value of animal food products in human nutrition: essential nutrients and balanced dietary diversity

Animal food products play a pivotal role in providing essential nutrients to humans, offering a spectrum of vital elements that extend beyond mere protein content. These nutrients, which include but are not limited to vitamins, minerals, and certain types of fats, are often more readily available in animal-derived sources than in plant-based alternatives. This discrepancy arises due to factors such as lower concentrations, reduced bioavailability, and the presence of anti-nutritional factors in plant sources (Leroy et al., 2022). While acknowledging that modern diets may not always achieve optimal balance, it is crucial to recognize that eliminating animal products from the human diet could potentially lead to inadequate essential nutrition for diverse populations. The unique nutritional profile of animal-derived foods makes them indispensable in meeting specific dietary requirements that might be challenging to fulfil through plant-based sources alone. Furthermore, the suitability of restrictive diets that eliminate or significantly reduce animal products varies among individuals. Certain demographic groups, such as the young, pregnant and lactating women, older adults, and those with metabolic challenges, may find it challenging to obtain essential nutrients solely from plant-based sources (Leroy et al., 2023). The nutritional demands during critical life stages, such as pregnancy and lactation, underscore the importance of considering the diverse dietary needs of specific populations. In essence, while there is a growing discourse on alternative diets and the environmental impact of animal agriculture, it is essential to approach these discussions with a nuanced understanding of nutritional requirements. Striking a balance that addresses the nutritional needs of individuals across various life stages and health conditions is paramount. It emphasizes the importance of personalized dietary choices that consider the role of animal food products in providing essential nutrients and supporting the overall well-being of diverse populations (Leroy and Barnard, 2020).

The holistic impact of livestock farming: Beyond food production to economic, cultural and ecological dimensions

Livestock farming generates a spectrum of positive externalities that transcend its primary function of food production. The multifaceted contributions of animal production extend into crucial economic, cultural, and social realms, constituting vital components that enhance the overall vitality of territories and integrate seamlessly into agroecosystems. These positive externalities underscore the intricate and interconnected relationship between livestock farming and sustainable, holistic development. The economic significance of livestock farming extends beyond the provision of food. Livestock contributes to job creation, income generation, and economic stability in various regions. Moreover, they form an integral part of the agricultural value chain, fostering a network of interdependencies that bolster local and global economies. Recognizing these economic dimensions is paramount for formulating comprehensive agricultural policies that address the broader socioeconomic landscape (Baltenweck et al. 2020). Culturally and socially, livestock farming plays a pivotal role in shaping identities, traditions, and community structures. Livestock are intertwined with cultural practices and rituals, serving as symbols of heritage and continuity. In many societies, livestock rearing is not merely an economic activity but a way of life, fostering a deep connection between communities and their agricultural legacies. This cultural significance emphasizes the need to approach livestock farming holistically, considering its role in preserving cultural diversity and community cohesion. Within the agro-ecosystem framework, livestock-positive externalities emerge as essential contributors to environmental sustainability. Globally, a mere 14% of the dry matter ingested by livestock is directly consumable by humans (Boorgaard, 2009). The remaining 86%, comprised of grass and crop residues, is converted by animals into highly nutritious food for human consumption and valuable manure. This transformative process creates a virtuous circle wherein nonedible biomass is repurposed, providing essential nutrients and carbon to plants and soils. The application of livestock manure as organic fertilizer enriches soil fertility enhances agricultural productivity, and contributes to the overall health of ecosystems. In essence, recognizing and accounting for these positive externalities is imperative for a comprehensive and balanced approach to livestock farming. Understanding the diverse roles that livestock play in economic, cultural, and environmental contexts facilitates the development of sustainable practices that harmonize with the intricate dynamics of territories and agroecosystems. Embracing the virtuous circle created by livestock farming enriches not only food production but also the resilience, diversity, and sustainability of the broader socio-ecological landscape (ATP Policy Brief, 2021). Livestock farming emerges as a pivotal contributor to global food production, utilizing approximately 57% of land categorized as marginal—areas unsuitable for direct crop cultivation. This utilization of marginal land for grazing and animal production not only addresses the challenge of limited arable land but also delivers crucial ecosystem services. Herbivores, especially, play a significant role in enhancing food security by efficiently utilizing grazing lands that would otherwise be unable to yield plant-based products. On a global scale, a substantial number of cattle (360 million) and small ruminants (600 million) produce 25% of the world's animal products from these marginal lands (Zanten et al., 2015).

The inherent value of livestock farming extends beyond food production, encompassing a spectrum of ecosystem services. Grasslands and marginal areas, where livestock often graze, contribute significantly to maintaining rural landscapes and biodiversity. Livestock's impact goes beyond mere sustenance, extending to the control of bush encroachment and prevention of rural fires. Moreover, the presence of grazing animals contributes to the economic viability of rural areas by sustaining populations and providing outputs such as manure with high carbon-to-nitrogen ratios, thereby positively influencing soil organic matter content and macrofauna (Fraser et al., 2022).

The multifaceted contributions of animal production extend to broader environmental conservation efforts. Livestock farming has been identified as a potential force in combating desertification, restoring degraded land and soil, and ensuring the sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems and their services. This holistic approach aligns with the imperative to preserve and restore natural habitats while simultaneously safeguarding the livelihoods of small-scale food producers. It emphasizes the importance of equal access to markets and opportunities, fostering an environment that values local products and their unique characteristics (Reed et al., 2015).

In essence, livestock farming serves as a dynamic force in the intricate balance between food security, environmental stewardship, and the livelihoods of local communities. By efficiently utilizing marginal lands and providing a range of ecosystem services, animal production stands as a key player in the quest for sustainable agriculture and the conservation of terrestrial ecosystems (Spiller et al., 2023).

Adopting an integrated and circular approach to livestock farming

While acknowledging the positive externalities associated with livestock farming, there is a crucial need to fortify these roles and clearly define the conditions under which animal production becomes an indispensable contributor. The quest for climate neutrality cannot be reduced to a mere equilibrium of emissions and retentions; rather, it demands a nuanced understanding of the complex nature of agricultural systems. Agricultural systems, particularly those involving animal production, are inherently intricate, and while the solution may be straightforward, the path to attaining it is undeniably complex (Baumgard et al., 2012).

In this pursuit, it becomes imperative to recognize the intangible services that livestock farming provides. This recognition prompts a fundamental shift in perspective—one that reimagines the role of livestock within agricultural systems through an integrated and circular perspective. The merging of animal and plant production systems opens new avenues for resource management, promoting efficiency and sustainability (Sekaran et al., 2021). This integrated approach yields multifaceted benefits:

• Balancing Nutrient Cycles: An integrated perspective facilitates the harmonization of nitrogen and phosphorus cycles, optimizing nutrient utilization and minimizing environmental impacts.
• Mitigating Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Livestock farming, when integrated into holistic systems, can contribute to the effective reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, aligning with broader climate goals.
• Maximizing Soil Carbon Sequestration: By strategically combining animal and plant production, opportunities arise to enhance soil carbon sequestration, a crucial element in mitigating climate change.
• Promoting Biodiversity: An integrated approach plays a pivotal role in the promotion and maintenance of biodiversity, contributing to the health and resilience of ecosystems.
• Restoring Ecosystem Functions: The synergistic integration of animal and plant production restores essential ecosystem functions, including soil fertility, pollination, and pest control.

To further advance circular practices, a closer examination of co-products in animal nutrition presents untapped potential. By identifying and closing existing gaps between by-products and livestock production, a more comprehensive circular approach can be established, fostering sustainability and resilience within the livestock sector (Schneider et al., 2021).

In summary, the key takeaway emphasizes the irreplaceable role of livestock farming in the creation of biodiverse ecosystems and the establishment of sustainable and healthy food systems. Livestock production systems are not only essential for the achievement of sustainable development goals but also serve as linchpins in enhancing the vitality of regions across the globe. Recognizing the complexities and embracing an integrated, circular perspective ensures that the multifaceted contributions of livestock farming are fully harnessed for the benefit of both ecosystems and human societies (Alders et al., 2021). 

General Impacts of climate change on the livestock food supply chain

In the literature, there are a range of scientific articles investigating and discussing the impacts of climate change on the food chain, in a general way. 
The assessment of climate-related impacts along the land-based livestock food supply chain has revealed a range of significant findings. The outline of the potential repercussions of climate variables on the livestock food supply chain have been reported and the main social impacts linked to the livestock supply chain have been shown to encompass a range of dimensions. Changes in livestock products’ consumption patterns may be due to reduced nutritional quality (Abbass et al., 2022; FAO, 2017; FAO et al., 2018; Godde et al., 2021). These alterations may affect animal health and welfare, leading to increased prices and heightened production unpredictability caused by shifts in pest and disease patterns. Concerns also extend to human health and productivity, with climate-related stresses, particularly heat-related issues, posing a threat to the availability and productivity of healthy workers. The potential for disease outbreaks further compounds these challenges. The stability of productivity, viability, and the overall structure of livestock enterprises is identified as another focal point. Climate impacts have the potential to disrupt these aspects, thereby affecting product availability and quality. Importantly, these disruptions could exacerbate existing inequalities, with small-scale enterprises within the livestock supply chain facing disproportionate negative impacts. Economic consequences loom large, as changes in production costs and product prices are foreseen. The authors attribute these shifts to alterations in feed costs and availability, presenting challenges to the economic sustainability of livestock-related activities along the supply chain (Abbass et al., 2022).
In conclusion, the dynamic and sometimes unpredictable nature of the impacts of climate change affects livestock production supply chains. While certain consequences may be foreseeable, uncertainties persist regarding the full extent and nature of these changes. Recognizing the need for transformative adaptation, the importance of deploying a diverse array of strategies that span ecological, socioeconomic, and institutional systems should be recognized. Within this framework, the recommended adaptation measures are multifaceted and aimed at minimizing and mitigating the social impacts of climate change on livestock production supply chains. These encompass encouraging diversified income sources beyond livestock to enhance overall resilience (Rojas-Downing et al., 2017). The implementation of improved water conservation practices, including efficient irrigation and rainwater harvesting, emerges as a critical strategy to address escalating water demands and safeguard feed supply, thereby mitigating the downstream impacts on final products. In response to the challenges posed by changing feed quality and availability, most of the literature available advocates for the development of climate-resilient crop varieties and innovative feed options. This proactive approach aims to ensure a stable and reliable supply chain for livestock production. 
Addressing labourers' vulnerabilities in high-temperature regions, the implementation of policies to protect them from heat stress and communicable diseases is essential for sustaining a healthy and productive workforce. Diversifying diets and exploring alternative protein sources are recommended to reduce reliance on traditional livestock products (Sonneveld et al., 2018). Additionally, the implementation of policies to stabilize markets and prices, which may experience increased volatility due to climate-related changes, is crucial for ensuring economic stability within the livestock sector. Focusing on socio-economic support and infrastructure development in vulnerable regions becomes imperative to build resilience against climate impacts, particularly in areas more susceptible to adverse consequences (OECD, 2023). Lastly, investing in further research is highlighted as a priority to deepen the understanding and prediction of climate impacts on livestock systems. This research-driven approach facilitates the formulation of informed adaptation strategies to navigate the evolving landscape of challenges posed by climate change in the context of livestock production supply chains (Kipling et al., 2019).

The social impact of climate change on livestock production and community well-being

The social impact of climate change on livestock production is a multifaceted phenomenon that encapsulates the far-reaching effects and consequences of climate-related shifts and disturbances on the human dimensions of the livestock industry. This intricate interplay extends across a spectrum of interconnected social factors, each intricately woven into the fabric of the communities engaged in or reliant on livestock farming (Rojas-Downing et al., 2017).
At its core, the social impact encompasses the overall well-being of communities involved in livestock production. Climate change introduces stressors that can affect the mental, physical, and emotional health of individuals dependent on livestock-related activities. These communities, often deeply rooted in traditional agricultural practices, find themselves navigating an evolving landscape influenced by unpredictable weather patterns, extreme events, and environmental changes (Lawrance et al., 2022).
The livelihoods of individuals engaged in livestock farming are profoundly influenced by climate-related factors. Shifts in precipitation patterns, temperature extremes, and alterations in the availability of forage and water resources directly impact the productivity and sustainability of livestock-based enterprises. As a consequence, individuals reliant on these activities may face challenges in maintaining stable and secure livelihoods, posing threats to economic well-being (Thornton et al., 2008).
Labour conditions within the livestock sector are intricately tied to the social impacts of climate change. Extreme weather events and changing environmental conditions can affect the labour-intensive nature of livestock management. Unpredictable and harsh weather patterns may necessitate adjustments in daily routines, potentially increasing the physical demands on workers. Moreover, the need for adaptive measures and changes in farming practices can influence the skill sets required within the sector (Cullen et al., 2021).
Economic stability within the livestock sector, a pivotal component of the broader social impact, is subject to the vagaries of climate change. Fluctuations in productivity shifts in market dynamics, and challenges in maintaining consistent outputs all contribute to the economic uncertainties faced by individuals and communities reliant on livestock-related activities. These economic stresses can further amplify existing vulnerabilities, particularly in regions where livestock farming serves as a primary source of income (Godde et al., 2021). 

 Livelihoods and Income

Climate change poses a substantial threat to the livelihoods of individuals and communities deeply entrenched in livestock production. The repercussions of climate change are manifested through a series of impactful mechanisms, including extreme weather events, shifts in precipitation patterns, and alterations in temperature regimes. These climatic variations can have profound effects on the fundamental elements that sustain livestock farming, with direct implications for the economic well-being and stability of those reliant on these activities for their livelihoods (Birkmann et al., 2022).

Extreme weather events, such as floods, droughts, and heat waves, disrupt the delicate balance necessary for successful livestock management. Floods can inundate grazing areas, compromising forage availability, while droughts can lead to water scarcity, affecting both the hydration of livestock and the growth of essential forage. Simultaneously, prolonged heatwaves can induce stress in animals, negatively impacting their health and productivity. These climatic stressors collectively challenge the ability of livestock keepers to maintain the optimal conditions required for animal welfare and productive farming (NAAS, 2016).

Altered precipitation patterns further exacerbate these challenges. Changes in rainfall intensity, frequency, and distribution can directly influence the growth of pastures and forage crops. Livestock heavily depend on these sources for nutrition, and any disruption in their availability can lead to nutritional deficiencies, affecting the overall health and productivity of the animals (Giridhar and Samireddypalle, 2015).

Temperature variations, whether gradual or abrupt, can also have profound effects. Elevated temperatures can induce heat stress in livestock, affecting their feed intakes, production parameters, reproductive performance, and overall well-being. Additionally, temperature changes can influence the prevalence and distribution of diseases, introducing new challenges for disease management in livestock populations.

The collective impact of these climate-induced changes reverberates through the economic fabric of communities dependent on livestock farming. Reduced productivity, compromised animal health, and increased resource scarcity directly affect income-generating opportunities for those engaged in the sector. Livestock-related activities, such as meat and dairy production, may experience fluctuations or declines, impacting market participation and economic stability for individuals and communities (Becker et al., 2020).

In essence, climate change introduces a complex web of challenges for those reliant on livestock for their livelihoods. Addressing these challenges requires a comprehensive approach that considers adaptive strategies, sustainable farming practices, and broader policies aimed at fostering resilience in the face of a changing climate (Hariram et al., 2023).

Human health and labour conditions

Climate change incorporates the ramifications of climate change on the livestock industry and has a profound social impact, particularly on the health and well-being of those engaged in the sector. One of the foremost challenges is the escalating risk of heat stress among labourers, a consequence of rising temperatures attributed to climate change. Exposure to prolonged periods of elevated heat can have deleterious effects on the physical health and productivity of individuals working in the demanding environment of the livestock industry. Heat stress not only jeopardizes the immediate welfare of labourers but also poses long-term risks, potentially leading to chronic health conditions and diminished work capacity (Spiller et al., 2023).

Furthermore, the intricate interplay between climate conditions and disease patterns introduces an additional layer of complexity to the health risks associated with livestock farming. As climate change influences the geographic distribution and prevalence of diseases affecting animals, it concurrently heightens the health risks for those directly involved in the care and management of livestock. Shifts in disease patterns may expose workers to novel infectious agents, necessitating adjustments in healthcare protocols and intensifying the demand for robust occupational health measures within the livestock industry (Ali et al., 2020).

Beyond the immediate health concerns, the social impact extends to the broader labour conditions within the livestock sector. Unpredictable weather patterns, extreme events, and changing environmental conditions may necessitate alterations in daily work routines and practices. The adaptability of labourers becomes paramount as they navigate evolving challenges in livestock management, requiring new skill sets and coping mechanisms to ensure effective and sustainable work practices. In essence, the social implications of climate change on human health and labour conditions within the livestock industry underscore the urgent need for comprehensive strategies. These strategies should not only address the immediate health risks associated with rising temperatures and changing disease dynamics but also encompass broader considerations for occupational safety, skill development, and adaptive capacity. By prioritizing the well-being of those contributing to the livestock sector, it becomes possible to cultivate a resilient and sustainable workforce capable of navigating the evolving challenges imposed by a changing climate (Gitz et al., 2016).

Community Resilience

Livestock farming communities find themselves on the front lines of climate change, encountering formidable challenges that demand adaptive responses. The amplification in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, such as prolonged droughts or devastating floods, emerges as a pivotal factor disrupting established farming practices. The repercussions of these climatic extremes extend far beyond the immediate disruptions to daily activities, posing profound threats to the overall resilience of the communities that are intricately tied to livestock for sustenance and income (Seneviratne, 2022).

In the face of escalating climate-related challenges, the resilience of these communities becomes a critical consideration. Traditional farming practices, often finely tuned to local climates and ecosystems, may prove inadequate in the face of unprecedented weather events. Prolonged droughts, for instance, can lead to water scarcity, diminished forage availability, and increased livestock mortality, severely impacting the economic foundation of these communities. Conversely, intense floods can result in soil erosion, destruction of grazing areas, and loss of livestock, further compromising the ability of communities to recover and sustain their livelihoods (Calicioglu et al., 2019).

To bolster community resilience, a multifaceted approach is essential. This includes the development of climate-resilient farming strategies, the introduction of sustainable land and water management practices, and the implementation of early warning systems to prepare for and mitigate the impacts of extreme weather events. Furthermore, fostering diversification within livestock farming, both in terms of species and income-generating activities, can enhance adaptive capacity. Empowering communities with the knowledge and resources to implement climate-smart agricultural practices ensures a more robust response to the challenges posed by a changing climate (European Commission, 2020).

In the broader context, community resilience hinges on the creation of supportive frameworks that facilitate the exchange of information, access to resources, and collaboration among stakeholders. By strengthening social networks, promoting local initiatives, and integrating indigenous knowledge with modern adaptive strategies, livestock farming communities can cultivate a resilience that transcends individual challenges. The goal is not only to navigate the immediate impacts of climate change but also to foster a sustainable and adaptive trajectory that secures the well-being and prosperity of these communities in the face of an uncertain climate future (Lyons et al., 2023).

Socioeconomic inequalities

The far-reaching impacts of climate change possess the potential to intensify and accentuate prevailing socioeconomic inequalities, creating a disproportionate burden on vulnerable populations. Among those most significantly affected are small-scale and subsistence farmers, whose livelihoods are intricately woven into the fabric of livestock-dependent practices. These individuals often find themselves on the frontline of climate-induced challenges, grappling with a confluence of factors that can disrupt their economic stability and amplify existing inequalities within society (Islam and Winkel, 2017). 
Small-scale and subsistence farmers, typically lacking the resources and infrastructure available to larger agricultural enterprises, face heightened vulnerability in the wake of climate change. The reliance on livestock as a primary source of income and sustenance renders them particularly susceptible to fluctuations in livestock productivity and availability. Climate-induced shifts in weather patterns, such as irregular rainfall, prolonged droughts, or extreme temperatures, directly impact the well-being and resilience of these farmers (Morton, 2007). The consequential effects on livestock, including diminished productivity, increased susceptibility to diseases, and altered grazing conditions, can initiate a domino effect that reverberates through the socioeconomic strata. The economic disparities between different segments of society become pronounced, as small-scale farmers contend with reduced yields, financial insecurities, and compromised access to markets. These challenges, which may be exacerbated by climate change, further marginalize already vulnerable communities, perpetuating a cycle of inequality that extends beyond the agricultural sector (Cheng et al., 2022).
Moreover, the broader implications of socioeconomic inequalities stemming from climate change-induced impacts on livestock reverberate through access to education, healthcare, and social services. Small-scale farmers, lacking the financial means to adapt swiftly to changing climatic conditions, may find themselves grappling with limited opportunities for advancement, hindering their ability to break free from the shackles of poverty (Paavola, 2017). 
Addressing these socioeconomic inequalities demands a holistic approach that encompasses not only climate adaptation strategies but also social and economic policies that empower vulnerable communities. This includes the development of resilient agricultural practices, targeted support mechanisms, and inclusive policies that ensure equitable access to resources and opportunities. By acknowledging and actively mitigating the disproportionate impact of climate change on small-scale and subsistence farmers, society can take significant strides towards fostering a more just and equitable future (Fisher, 2022).

 Food security and nutrition

The intricate interplay between climate change and livestock production introduces a significant dimension to global food security and nutritional concerns. Shifts in established livestock production patterns, induced by climate-induced challenges, have the potential to reverberate throughout the food supply chain, exerting far-reaching effects on the availability and quality of livestock products. This, in turn, poses a direct threat to the foundational elements of food security and nutrition (Idel et al., 2013).

The diminished quality or availability of livestock products, a consequence of climate-related impacts, stands as a critical nexus between environmental changes and nutritional well-being. Particularly in regions where livestock serves as a primary source of protein and essential nutrients, the repercussions are profound. The altered landscape of livestock production can disrupt established dietary patterns, leading to a decline in the nutritional intake derived from animal products. This shift is particularly concerning as livestock products are often integral to balanced diets, providing essential amino acids, vitamins, and minerals that are crucial for human health (Leroy et al., 2022).

In regions heavily reliant on livestock for sustenance, reduced availability of high-quality animal products may contribute to a protein deficit and compromise overall dietary diversity. This, in turn, raises concerns about the potential for malnutrition, especially among vulnerable populations such as children, pregnant women and lactating mothers, who have heightened nutritional requirements. The intricate link between livestock-derived nutrients and human health underscores the need for proactive strategies to address the nutritional implications of climate-induced changes in livestock production (McMichael et al., 2007).

To safeguard food security and nutrition in the face of these challenges, there is a pressing need for diversified and resilient agricultural practices. This includes the promotion of alternative protein sources, the enhancement of plant-based nutrition, and the development of climate-resilient crops. Additionally, educational initiatives aimed at raising awareness about balanced diets and sustainable food choices can play a pivotal role in mitigating the potential nutritional fallout of climate-induced shifts in livestock production (Neik et al., 2023).

In summary, the intricate relationship between climate change, livestock production, and food security necessitates comprehensive and adaptive measures. By addressing the vulnerabilities within the food supply chain, promoting sustainable dietary practices, and fostering resilience in agricultural systems, it becomes possible to mitigate the adverse effects on nutrition and ensure a more secure and sustainable future for global populations (Wijerathna-Yapa and Pathirana, 2022).

Migration and displacement

The intricate dynamics between climate change and livestock productivity extend their tendrils into the complex realm of human migration and displacement. Climate-induced alterations in livestock productivity can act as a catalyst, setting in motion patterns of human population movement and relocation within vulnerable communities. As the very foundations of traditional livelihoods become increasingly untenable in the face of environmental challenges, individuals or entire communities may find themselves compelled to embark on journeys in pursuit of better opportunities or essential resources, ushering in a wave of social disruptions (Birkmann et al., 2022).

Communities that heavily rely on livestock for sustenance and livelihood face heightened vulnerability to the impacts of climate change. Shifts in weather patterns, altered grazing conditions, and increased frequency of extreme events can disrupt established farming practices, rendering traditional modes of sustenance untenable. In the wake of these challenges, individuals and communities may grapple with a harsh reality where the once reliable pathways to livelihood are no longer viable (Thorlakson and Neufeldt, 2012).

The phenomenon of climate-induced migration often unfolds as a complex interplay of environmental, economic, and social factors. Individuals may be impelled to seek to settle in areas with more favourable climatic conditions or with better access to the resources that are essential for livestock farming. In some instances, entire communities may find themselves at the crossroads of environmental degradation and economic constraints, necessitating collective decisions to relocate in pursuit of a more sustainable existence (Pan, 2020).

This forced migration not only represents the geographical movement of human individuals and groups but also encompasses the displacement of social structures, cultural ties, and community bonds. The search for better opportunities can lead to the fragmentation of communities, challenging the resilience of social networks and contributing to a sense of loss and dislocation. Moreover, as individuals and communities migrate, they may encounter unfamiliar territories, facing potential conflicts over resources and strained relations with resident populations (Taylor, 2013).

Mitigating the impact of climate-induced migration requires an informed understanding of the interconnected challenges faced by vulnerable communities. It calls for comprehensive strategies that address the root causes of environmental stress, build adaptive capacities within communities, and foster sustainable livelihood alternatives. By acknowledging the multifaceted nature of climate-induced migration and displacement, societies can work towards creating environments that support the resilience and well-being of those affected, ultimately fostering a more equitable and sustainable future for themselves (Guadagno, 2017).

The social impact of climate change on livestock production per country-partner

Estonia

Examining the intricate interplay between climate change and livestock production in Baltic Sea countries, particularly Estonia and Latvia, reveals substantial social impacts that ripple across various stakeholders. Soil erosion, a consequence of shifting precipitation and temperature patterns, emerges as a critical factor significantly affecting livestock farming. Livestock farmers grapple with challenges such as soil degradation, diminished fertility, and decreased water and nutrient retention in topsoil. These climate-induced erosions not only threaten ecosystem services, crop production, and carbon stocks but also reverberate through livestock grazing areas and fodder availability (Melece and Shena, 2020).

The implementation of climate adaptation measures encounters hurdles, especially in larger, economically robust farms. Despite recommendations advocating for ecosystem-based approaches and agroecological practices, such as conservation agriculture, crop diversification, and maintaining permanent soil cover, adoption rates remain low. Larger farms, influenced by economic considerations, tend to favour intensive production technologies, potentially sidelining agroecological orientations and sustainability compared to their smaller, less economically developed counterparts (Niskanen et al., 2020).

The reduction in crop and farming system diversity poses a formidable challenge for adaptation. Monoculture farming, dominant in some Baltic Sea countries, not only affects soil fertility negatively but also elevates the use of mineral fertilizers (Põldaru et al., 2018). The declining trend in permanent cultures, particularly in organic areas, raises concerns as these play a pivotal role in mitigating soil degradation and carbon loss. While organic farming covers a significant portion of agricultural land in Estonia and Latvia, the simultaneous decline in permanent cultures could compromise soil health in the long run (Melece and Shena, 2020).

In essence, the social impacts of climate change on livestock production in the Baltic Sea, including Estonia, are rooted in soil erosion and degradation. The challenges of implementing recommended adaptation measures, especially for smaller farms, pose financial barriers. The dominance of larger farms in opting for intensive production technologies raises questions about the long-term sustainability of livestock farming in the face of changing climatic conditions (Ambros and Granvik, 2020).

Expanding the scope to encompass the broader social impacts, it becomes evident that farmers, communities, and the agricultural sector bear the brunt of climate-induced changes. Farmers face economic challenges and uncertainties due to reduced yields and increased costs associated with implementing adaptation strategies. Rural communities, deeply intertwined with livestock farming, experience disruptions in traditional practices, potentially affecting local economies and livelihoods. The broader agricultural sector grapples with challenges stemming from shifts in livestock production impacting food supply chains, biodiversity, and overall sustainability (Ambros and Granvik, 2020; Hall, 2018; Põldaru et al., 2018).

Moreover, a regional analysis of Baltic Sea littoral countries, including Estonia, using Markov models and CAPRI (Common Agricultural Policy Regionalized Impact) models, identifies a notable shift in animal production towards larger farms. This structural change not only affects the distribution and intensity of future manure nutrient applications but also raises concerns about sustainability, particularly for smaller-scale farmers. The anticipated changes highlight the need for policy adaptations and international cooperation to manage agglomeration issues, prevent environmental challenges, and address social and environmental injustices (Niskanen et al., 2020). The overarching trend towards larger farms and decreased agricultural labour input has significant implications for farmers, rural communities, policymakers, and consumers. Smaller-scale farmers may be expected to face economic challenges and sustainability concerns, negatively impacting their ability to adapt to structural changes. Rural communities reliant on agriculture may experience shifts in employment opportunities and economic stability. Policymakers must navigate the complexities of shaping agricultural landscapes and resource allocation. Consumers may witness changes in local food production and access, influencing choices and food security.

Transitioning to the specific context of Estonia, climate change has induced shifts in agricultural land use, presenting challenges and opportunities. The significant increase in agricultural land reflects potential adaptation strategies or changes in farming practices due to climate influences. However, there is a discernible trend towards larger farms and industrialized practices, resulting in a decline in small and medium farms. This shift, influenced by the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), raises concerns about the potential negative impacts on medium and small-scale farmers. The need to foster resilience in food systems, and preserve diverse farm sizes, emerges as a crucial aspect of adaptation against climate change impacts (Ambros and Granvik, 2020).

Furthermore, the impacts of climate change extend to dairy cattle (traditionally and currently a highly important sector of agricultural production in Estonia), with rising temperatures and altered weather patterns affecting their health, productivity, and comfort. Adaptation actions involve a multidimensional approach, including breeding for resilience, microclimate control, feeding strategies, and housing-related solutions. For Estonia, adaptation measures might involve improving ventilation systems, providing shade, and exploring selective breeding for heat-resistant traits in dairy cattle, taking advantage of the genetic resources extant in native dairy cow breeds (Borshch et al., 2021).

In the broader context of food security and agricultural land use, climate change exacerbates existing challenges. Optimizing land use in Estonia becomes crucial to balancing agricultural land use sustainably, ensuring robust domestic production and meeting potential export demands. The social impacts, therefore, encompass changes in farming practices, grazing areas, and livelihoods for farmers. Rural communities may experience disruptions in traditional practices, while consumers may witness shifts in food production and access (Põldaru et al., 2018).

The discussion extends to the management of abandoned farmlands, where rewilding and multifunctional strategies come into play. Estonia's experience reveals a rapid transformation in farming structure, influenced by the reprivatization of state-owned farms in the post-Soviet era and adjustments following post-EU accession in 2004. Ambros and Granvik (2020) emphasize the need for policymakers to support diverse farm sizes, preserving small and medium farms alongside larger operations. This approach aligns with climate goals, ensuring economic viability while addressing societal, policy, and gender equity aspects.

In conclusion, the multifaceted impacts of climate change on livestock production in Baltic Sea countries, with a focus on Estonia, unravel a complex web of challenges and adaptation strategies. The social impacts extend across farmers, communities, policymakers, and consumers, necessitating collaborative efforts, technological advancements, and nuanced policy interventions. The evolving landscape of livestock farming, marked by structural changes and adaptation measures, underscores the imperative of sustainable practices to navigate the uncertainties posed by climate change.

Italy

The social impacts of climate change on livestock production, particularly in the context of Italy, extend beyond the immediate effects on farmers and communities. The intricate interplay between climate change and livestock production in Italy unravels a complex web of challenges and potential adaptation strategies. Extreme weather events, temperature fluctuations, and altered precipitation patterns directly impact livestock, influencing their well-being and demanding costs for additional veterinary healthcare resources. The repercussions extend to reduced feed intakes, fertility rates, overall productivity and well-being, significantly affecting farmers' income and food supply. In Italy, a country with diverse landscapes, these impacts vary across regions, necessitating adaptive measures to address shifts in climate patterns and their implications on traditional farming practices.

Italy's strategic focus on bio-economy, as outlined in BIT II, underscores a commitment to sustainable agriculture, including livestock production, and resilience against climate change. The strategy aims to bolster turnover and jobs in the bio-economy, emphasizing the sustainable valorization of biodiversity and ecosystem services. Partnerships like the Partnership for Research and Innovation in the Mediterranean Area (PRIMA), the BLUEMED Initiative, the EU Strategy for the Adriatic-Ionian Region (EUSAIR), and the Western Mediterranean Initiative (WESTMED) contribute to efforts enhancing local social cohesion, political stability, and economic growth. Strategies encompass breeding resilient livestock, infrastructure investment, diversifying farming practices, and knowledge dissemination for climate-smart livestock management. However, Fava et al. (2021) suggests that the Italian strategy might benefit from more detailed measures addressing the direct impacts of climate change on livestock production. Regional adaptations, breed-specific initiatives, and partnerships fostering resilience could enhance the effectiveness of adaptation strategies for livestock communities facing the challenges posed by climate change.

Shifting focus, consumer behaviour and preferences in response to carbon footprint (CF) labels on agricultural products are pivotal in promoting sustainable choices. Italian consumers exhibit positive responses to CF labels, especially when coupled with local origin or health-related information. The emergence of CF labels influences stakeholder behaviour, necessitating adjustments in livestock production practices to align with evolving consumer preferences. Livestock producers may need to invest in eco-friendly methods or obtain certifications to meet market demands for environmentally conscious products (Canavari and Coderoni, 2020).

As climate change increasingly impacts agriculture in Italy's Veneto region, the adoption of climate-smart agriculture (CSA) practices becomes crucial.  Pagliacci et al. (2020) identifies challenges, including technical preparedness, reluctance to adopt innovations and policy inadequacies. CSA practices, focusing on water and nutrient management, soil conservation, and mechanization, offer resilience against climate impacts. However, the continuation of CSA practices is influenced by factors such as farm income sources, farmer involvement, attitudes towards innovation, and social pressures, demanding nuanced strategies for awareness and education.

Addressing the specific challenges faced by pig farming in Italy, particularly concerning heat stress, reduced feed quality, and disease patterns, is imperative. The social impacts encompass economic uncertainties, health risks, and the need for adaptive measures and policy interventions. Strategies include improving housing conditions, genetic selection for heat resilience, efficient feed management, and disease surveillance systems (Renaudeau and Dourmad, 2021).

Furthermore, Bimbo (2023) delves into the shifting consumer behaviours in Italy in response to growing awareness of environmental issues. Climate change-aware individuals are reducing their intake of red meat, indicating a complex interplay between climate change awareness, socioeconomic factors, health considerations, and environmental consciousness influencing meat consumption habits. This shift in consumer preferences has implications for stakeholders in livestock production, necessitating adaptations such as diversification of products or a focus on alternative, perceived-sustainable meat sources.

In conclusion, the multifaceted impacts of climate change on livestock production in Italy demand a holistic approach. From regional adaptations and tailored strategies to consumer education and innovative production methods, addressing the social impacts requires a nuanced understanding of the interconnected challenges and opportunities within the livestock industry.

 Morocco

The vulnerability of agriculture, particularly livestock and crop production in Moroccan regions such as Skoura and Taliouine, to climate change is evident. Reduced precipitation and drought have disrupted water sources, affecting both crop irrigation and livestock water supply (Aziz, 2022). This has led to diminished forage availability, impacting livestock productivity and reducing income for farmers. In response, rural populations have resorted to seasonal migration and diversification of income sources, such as trading and migration to urban areas to mitigate losses from poor harvests and to improve their living conditions.

The social impacts of climate change on livestock production stakeholders extend beyond income instability and concerns about food security. Local institutions and professional organizations play a crucial role in facilitating adaptation strategies, emphasizing the complex interplay between rural livelihoods and urban migration as responses to agricultural uncertainties. Farmers, facing uncertain rainfall patterns impacting crop yields and forage availability, experience challenges in maintaining income stability. Local communities’ express concerns about changes in agricultural output, raising questions about local food availability and access to sufficient nutrition. Agricultural institutions, including ORMVAO (Office Régional de Mise en Valeur Agricole de Ouarzazate) and Agricultural Councils, are expected to implement efforts for infrastructure rehabilitation, and sustaining water availability for agriculture and livestock. To cope with the detrimental impacts of climate change, farmers in these regions have implemented strategies such as shifting to more profitable crops using drip irrigation systems, adapting to water scarcity, and engaging in additional income-generating activities. These adaptation strategies are deemed essential for maintaining agriculture's contribution to the integrated development of these regions under changing climatic conditions (Aziz, 2022).

In the high plateaux of eastern Morocco (HPEM), livestock production faces heightened vulnerability due to extreme climate events, leading to fodder and water scarcity. Climate change exacerbates rangeland degradation, further intensifying social inequalities among breeders. Socioeconomic factors significantly influence the ability of breeders, with larger ones having better capacities to adopt climate change adaptation measures. The usual adaptation strategies in these regions involve associating cereal crops with livestock farming, income diversification, and mobility, but the authors highlight the short-term and reactive nature of these actions (Snaibi and Mezrhab, 2020).

In the Saïs plain of Morocco, overexploitation of aquifers due to increased irrigated agriculture has put a strain on water resources, impacting livestock farming that is heavily reliant on water availability. Climate change, water resource depletion, and commercialization emerge as major threats affecting farms engaged in intensive agriculture involving livestock. The social impacts involve resource constraints, economic challenges, and market issues. Adaptation actions focus on crop diversification, technology adoption, and anticipated government interventions to support farmers in dealing with climate-induced changes and market fluctuations (Hossard et al., 2021).

In conclusion, the social impacts of climate change on stakeholders in Moroccan livestock production are multifaceted, ranging from economic vulnerabilities and livelihood challenges for livestock keepers to cultural significance, environmental adaptation, and the necessity for supportive policies and research initiatives to enhance resilience and sustainability in livestock systems. Livestock keepers and breeders face challenges in adapting to extreme temperatures, low-quality diets, and increased disease challenges (Snaibi and Mezrhab, 2020), while indigenous breeds such as the Siroua sheep play a crucial role in biodiversity preservation and resilience against climate change (Ibnelbachyr et al., 2021). The intricate interplay of socioeconomic factors, local institutions, and adaptation strategies underscores the need for comprehensive approaches to address the evolving challenges in Moroccan livestock production. 

Greece

The assessment of sustainability in Greek agriculture, encompassing economic, social, and environmental dimensions, provides an understanding of the challenges faced in the context of climate change. Utilizing methods such as the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) and considering various farming systems, Tzouramani et al. (2020) delves into the social impacts of climate change on livestock production. Notably, it points out that livestock farms exhibit higher performance in terms of total labour and advisory contacts per year, suggesting potential impacts on workload and advisory mechanisms due to climate factors. The satisfaction with the quality of life, a crucial social criterion, is also identified as susceptible to climate-related stressors affecting livestock. Given the challenges, resilience-building in livestock farming can be achieved through diversified and sustainable farming practices. The emphasis on enhanced advisory services, incorporating climate-related advice, reflects the reliance on external guidance. Additionally, strategies to support the workforce, especially in the face of potential changes in livestock production, are deemed essential. Acknowledging the vulnerability of extensive farming systems, the study underscores the need for adaptive measures to ensure sustainable production and livelihoods. Recognizing sectorial heterogeneity, particularly in permanent crops or sheep farming, becomes imperative for tailored climate adaptation approaches. These factors underscore the necessity of holistic strategies considering economic, social, and environmental aspects. By guiding policy formation and targeted interventions, such assessments contribute to ensuring the long-term sustainability of Greek agriculture, especially concerning livestock production, amidst the challenges posed by climate change.

The impacts of climate change on small ruminant farming systems (SRFS) on a Greek island, shed light on the specific social repercussions involved. The overutilization of local grazing resources, vital for SRFS, emerges as a key concern, endangering the ecosystem and the system's sustainability. Economic challenges faced by farmers, including reduced incomes due to falling market prices, high feed costs, and unfavourable market conditions, underline the vulnerability of SRFS to climate-induced disruptions. The impact of European Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) subsidies, fostering dependency without promoting sustainable business models, leads to a lack of innovation and adaptability (Noll et al., 2020, Ragkos et al., 2017).

Potential solutions could be included in context-specific policy reforms that support environmentally friendly practices and reduce subsidy dependency. Recommendations span diverse areas, from environmental sustainability and low-density grazing to infrastructure investment and collaboration among farmers. The integration of scientific research with practical outcomes is emphasized, suggesting interventions like sown biodiverse pastures and continuous evaluation of the impacts on SRFS.In summary, the social impacts of climate change on different stakeholders of livestock production, as delineated in this study, range from economic challenges and reduced viability for small ruminant farmers to broader implications for local communities and cultural norms tied to livestock herding.

The National Strategy for Adaptation to Climate Change (NSACC) in Greece, emphasises its role in addressing the impacts on livestock production. Climate-induced stressors affecting livestock, from growth and breeding to overall health, necessitate strategic interventions outlined in the NSACC. The study underscores the importance of the NSACC's focus on different regions, considering varying climate scenarios and their impacts on agriculture, including livestock (Tsadilas, 2023). The NSACC, established in 2016, employs models such as AquaCrop to assess the impacts of climate change on crops and livestock, identifying regions sensitive to agricultural impacts. The study recommends adaptation measures under the NSACC, including the integration of livestock and dryland agriculture in the adaptation strategy. Reforms in agricultural policies, based on new climatic data and soil-water factors, are deemed essential. Furthermore, enhancing agroclimatic zoning and agricultural research is proposed to support mitigation and adaptation efforts.

In general, the social impacts of climate change on different stakeholders of livestock production, include reduced animal productivity impacting farmers and livestock owners and the broader consequences for rural communities, consumers, government, and policy makers, scientific and research communities, and international stakeholders and NGOs.

Tunisia

Most of the literature and investigations shed light on the profound social impacts of climate change on livestock production, focusing specifically on the agricultural systems in semi-arid regions, particularly in north-western Tunisia (Ben Nasr et al., 2021). The repercussions of climate change are acutely felt in arid areas, marked by more frequent extreme weather events such as droughts and floods. Projections indicate declines in cereal and olive oil production, as well as for livestock, which are attributable to changes in land use, decreased precipitation, and rising temperatures. The resultant vulnerability disproportionately affects the poorest rural communities, exacerbating social inequalities and significantly jeopardizing livelihoods and economic conditions (Hammami and Ferchichi, 2023).

Current climate adaptation measures predominantly revolve around building resilience within agricultural systems to mitigate climate change impacts. These strategies encompass various approaches, including irrigation, diversified production systems, and ensuring access to crucial resources such as water and productive assets. The importance of social capital and collective actions are underscored, emphasizing cooperation among stakeholders and rural communities for the effective deployment of adaptation strategies. Nevertheless, there is increased engagement with local stakeholders and cooperative actions to minimize resource degradation and enhance overall resilience.

Examining the social impacts of climate change on livestock production in Tunisia reveals a landscape marked by economic losses primarily caused by water scarcity. This, in turn, affects crop production and subsequently impacts livestock feed availability and livestock well-being. Shifts in crop patterns due to climate change may influence labour demand in the agricultural sector, contributing to decreases in farm income. Adaptive measures, ranging from technological advancements to policy interventions are imperative to optimize agricultural practices and mitigate the social impacts of these changes. Crop diversification, adoption of water-efficient technologies, and integration of climate change adaptation into national and local development policies are essential components of a comprehensive strategy (Frija et al., 2021; Ouessar et al., 2021).

In summary, the complex interplay of climate change on livestock production stakeholders in Tunisia demands multifaceted strategies. These strategies involve not only technological and policy interventions but also a keen understanding of social dynamics, cooperation among stakeholders, and the necessity to address vulnerabilities in the agricultural sector. As the impacts reverberate across different levels, from individual farmers to entire communities, a holistic approach is crucial to ensuring sustainable livestock practices and food security in the face of a changing climate (Aribi and Sghaier, 2021).

Malta

Conducting an island-wide survey, Galdies et al. (2016) delves into a critical yet often overlooked aspect of climate change adaptation—namely, the willingness of Gozitan livestock and crop farmers to adapt based on their perceptions and beliefs. Islands, particularly those as geographically constrained as Malta, grapple with heightened vulnerability due to limited land availability, population pressure, and the pervasive impacts of climate change, all of which impair agriculture and food security. The farming sector in Malta, with a specific focus on the island of Gozo, faces an array of challenges stemming from climate change, including rising temperatures, dwindling precipitation, and an increase in heatwaves. The overarching impact of climate change reverberates across Maltese agriculture, influencing crop cultivation, and livestock production, and shaping the attitudes of farmers (Galdies and Galdies, 2016). Recognizing the intricacies of farmers' beliefs and challenges becomes imperative when designing adaptation strategies that are not only effective but also resonate with the farming community's sentiments. A thorough understanding of farmers' perceptions, concerns, and their willingness to adapt to climate change is crucial in informing policies and social initiatives aimed at mitigating the impacts of climate change. Farmer perceptions often align with observable climatic changes, where those who acknowledge climate change are more inclined to support and adopt adaptation measures. These measures range from incorporating drought-resistant crops and drought-adapted livestock breeds to investing in new machinery, with farmers actively seeking financial assistance, educational resources, and support for their adaptive actions (Galdies et al., 2016).

In essence, the social impacts of climate change on stakeholders in livestock production underline the multifaceted challenges faced by farmers. The willingness of farmers to adapt takes centre stage, emphasizing the need for supportive policies and educational initiatives that can effectively facilitate adaptation amid changing climatic conditions. Delving into the specifics, farmers grapple with concerns about increased pest incidence and reduced crop yields due to warmer climates. Adapting to these changing conditions poses challenges, encompassing financial constraints, a lack of information, and reported decreases in yields, attributing them to heightened heat stress on livestock and intensified competition with imported products (Galdies and Galdies, 2016; Galdies et al., 2016).

Galdies and Galdies (2016) sheds further light on several key social impacts of climate change on livestock production, focusing particularly on the Maltese islands and the farming community in Gozo. The authors stress that climate change jeopardizes the stability of economic sectors, with agriculture being a linchpin in small island states like Malta. The discerned impacts, including rising temperatures affecting livestock health and productivity, underscore the urgency of implementing adaptation strategies. The proposed recommendations advocate for a synergy of autonomous and conscious adaptation measures, emphasizing the necessity for research-supported interventions and consistent government support. Crafting coherent policies, fostering collaboration across governmental departments, and engaging a range of stakeholders such as from academia, vocational educational institutions, and media emerge as pivotal for effective policy outcomes. The study contends that the refinement of adaptation policies demands learning from past failures, coupled with specialized training, education, and extension services aimed at motivating the youth to actively participate in agriculture. In summary, the social impacts on livestock production stakeholders involve financial risks, cultural shifts, diverse perceptions, and adaptation preferences, mandating tailored and comprehensive policy interventions to address the evolving challenges posed by climate change in the livestock sector.

Survey results per country-partner

Survey responses highlighting partner countries' concern about climate change

The comprehensive survey conducted on the effects of Climate Change (CC) on agricultural and livestock production, focusing on countries involved in the “LIVECLIC” project, has brought to light an array of concerns among the participating partners. The intricate tapestry of challenges faced by farmers reflects the intricate dance between climate variability and the delicate balance of agricultural ecosystems.

In Estonia, a predominant apprehension centres around the lowering of the productivity of livestock animals, particularly affecting cattle breeders who express a heightened concern for changes in the soil. This suggests a vulnerability in the agricultural infrastructure that necessitates careful monitoring and adaptive strategies.

Italy's medium-level concern for both the low productivity of animals and landscape changes underscores the intricate interplay between environmental shifts and the agricultural sector. Cattle breeders in Italy, mirroring their Estonian counterparts, share worries about changes in the soil and natural landscape alterations, indicating a shared vulnerability despite geographical differences.

Moving to Greece, a parallel concern for the medium-level impacts of low animal productivity and landscape changes is evident. Pig breeders in Greece echo similar sentiments about the low productivity of animals as in Estonia, signifying a common thread in challenges faced by livestock farmers across different regions.

Malta's unique challenges come to the forefront, with farmers expressing worries about the limited cultivation potential, reduction of native vegetation, and changes in the natural landscape. These concerns point towards a need for localized solutions to safeguard agricultural sustainability in this specific region.

The situation in Morocco introduces a distinct set of challenges, with thermal stress emerging as a major issue, particularly from March/April to September/October, where temperatures exceed 40°C. This underscores the urgency of addressing climate-related stressors that directly impact the well-being of livestock and, consequently, the livelihoods of farmers.

Finally, Tunisia presents a multifaceted array of concerns, ranging from low animal productivity (especially poultry breeders and goat-sheep breeders) and landscape changes, to biodiversity alterations and water scarcity. The specificity of concerns across different types of breeders, including cattle, goat-sheep, and poultry, highlights the need for a comprehensive and adaptable approach to climate change mitigation and adaptation.

The survey findings underscore the intricate challenges faced by farmers across the project partner countries’ diverse geographical and agricultural contexts. Tailored strategies that account for the unique vulnerabilities of each region and livestock sector are imperative in ensuring the resilience and sustainability of agriculture in the face of ongoing climate change.

Primary concerns related to climate change mitigation measures per country-partner

The survey conducted among breeding farmers from the partner countries revealed their primary concerns related to climate change mitigation measures. Each country demonstrated a unique set of chosen good practices and initiatives tailored to address these concerns. Italian cattle breeders, for instance, identified genetic selection, diet manipulation, and the physical processing of forages as key strategies. In Malta, the focus was on effective manure management. Greek breeders emphasized genetic selection, diet manipulation, physical processing of forages, and comprehensive livestock/livestock system management. Tunisian breeders, on the other hand, primarily highlighted the importance of efficient manure management.In Estonia, goat and sheep breeders underscored the significance of managing livestock/livestock systems, genetic selection, diet manipulation, manure management, and the use of nitrification/methane inhibitors. Greek pig breeders prioritized the management of livestock/livestock systems. Italian breeders, in contrast, emphasized the management of manure, livestock/livestock systems, genetic selection, and diet manipulation. Tunisian breeders similarly highlighted the importance of managing livestock/livestock systems, genetic selection, and diet manipulation. Maltese breeders focused on effective manure management.

In the poultry sector, Tunisian breeders favoured genetic selection, while Maltese poultry breeders prioritized the management of manure. These diverse practices and initiatives reflect the nuanced approaches each country is adopting to address climate change concerns within their specific agricultural contexts.

Conclusion

Societies in different geographical and cultural contexts are directly affected by climate change and livestock production. Climate change effects can be reduced by using appropriate solutions based on the targeted area's environmental and economic conditions.

The countries-partners' breeders' concerns and best practices for reducing the impacts of climate change differed not only by nationality but also by animal species, according to the results of the project’s survey of breeders. The diversity of animal breeding systems necessitates distinct management strategies to mitigate against the negative consequences of climate change. Among the research evaluated, the most effective potential mitigation techniques appear to be animal feeding control and manure storage and processing. Shade systems, genetic selection based on skin colour, modifying feeding times, and supplying plenty of cold water are some examples of cooling systems.

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